Antibiotics are a key commodity for global health, and inadequate access is a major contributor to global mortality. COVID-19 has refocused attention on global pharmaceutical value chains and the need for sustainable and secure production and supply of key products, including antibiotics. Production of antibiotics and their active pharmaceutical ingredients is capital- and technology-intensive, however, and value chains are dominated by a limited number of countries. China is known to be one of the largest producers, but its position in global value chains has not previously been analyzed. This is important for discussions about equitable and resilient global supplies, including through global instruments such as the pandemic treaty.
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This study utilizes data from the International Trade Center database to analyze global and Chinese export trade patterns in the antibiotic industry from to , along with trends in comparative advantage. The antibiotic trade data included in this study covers different antibiotic products, including some tuberculosis drugs, while other types of antimicrobial drugs (such as antivirals, antiparasitics) are excluded.
The export share of antibiotic ingredients from China increased from 9.0% in to 44.5% in . China is the largest exporter of antibiotic ingredients (with a strong comparative advantage). Additionally, the export share of antibiotic medicines increased from 0.5% in to 6.5% in , making it the 7th largest exporter of antibiotic medicines (though with a comparative disadvantage). The proportion of antibiotic medicines in China’s exports is gradually increasing, though the country’s antibiotic industry is expected to remain in the upstream-to-midstream segments of the global supply chain in the short term. China’s export market for antibiotic medicines is fragmented, focusing on developing countries, though European (17.9% in ) and North American markets (13.1% in ) are increasing in importance. China’s weight in global antibiotic exports, particularly of antibiotic ingredients, creates dependencies for countries reliant on China, and for Chinese companies reliant on certain overseas markets.
China is central to global antibiotic manufacturing. Policies promoting the reshaping of global supply chains and reshoring of critical medicines will likely create challenges for Chinese exporters, though are unlikely to alter the global supply structure in the short term. This has implications for Chinese policymakers, including strengthening innovation, quality, international competitiveness, and diversifying markets. Equally, China’s huge manufacturing capability, cost advantages, and rapid scientific and technological progress, make the country an inevitable and important part of future arrangements to ensure equitable global antibiotic access. As the Chinese government considers its global health policy in the post-COVID-19 era, antibiotics may provide an area where China can play a distinctive role.
Antibiotics are a group ofmedicines that are key to the functioning of effective health systems, and an essential commodity for global health. Lack of access to antibiotics is estimated to cause more deaths globally than antimicrobial resistance (AMR) [1], primarily in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [2]. While the reasons for limited access to antibiotics are complex [2,3,4], reliable supplies are an important element and there is a recognised need for global coordination to ensure this [4].
The COVID-19 pandemic has refocused attention on the importance of complex global value chains in the supply of pharmaceuticals, and the need for sustainable and secure production and supply of key products [5, 6]. The majority of antibiotic medicine supply comes from a small number of countries, including Italy, India, Canada and German [7]. This reflects the fact that antibiotic medicines are a capital - and technology - intensive sub-sector within biopharmaceuticals. In the antibiotic supply chain, the upstream segment primarily involves raw material production, while the downstream segment is focused on antibiotic formulations. Better understanding global patterns of production and distribution of antibiotics is necessary for ensuring sustainable and secure supply and improving access, especially in LMICs. To date, there have been only a limited number of studies of this [8, 9]. We believe this study to be the first to focus on China, one of the most important suppliers of antibiotics and precursors globally.
As the only country to cover all industrial categories in the WHO Industrial Classification, China has become an important link in global supply chains [10], particularly in industries like pharmaceutical manufacturing, automobiles, and electronics [11, 12]. Since joining the WTO, China's pharmaceutical sector has seen rapid growth, with a significant increase in its participation in international division of labor [13]. In the antibiotic sub-sector, data from the International Trade Centre (ITC) indicate that China's production and export volume of antibiotics was ranked number one globally in [11], while around 45% of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) needed for global antibiotics are sourced from China, as shown later in the paper [14]. Moreover, the significant increase in pharmaceutical exports from China to India and the US [9, 15]. Reports from indicate that India imports nearly 70% of its APIs from China [16]. In -21, China (22%) became the third-largest supplier of APIs to the United States, following India and Italy [17], suggesting an increasing global direct or indirect dependence on supplies from China [18]. Examples of this dependency include a case in when the shutdown of a single factory in China led to a global shortage of the crucial antibiotic piperacillin-tazobactam, and benzathine penicillin, for which only three API manufacturers remain, all of which are in China [19, 20].
China’s antibiotic industry has a long history, though one which sits out the mainstream of antibiotic production and research in developing countries. China’s research into and production of antibiotics (initially mainly penicillin, then streptomycin) started in the late s, with development of an antibiotics industry in the s, with backing for research centres and state-owned facilities from the central government and support from the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Post- and the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the country was very isolated internationally and not integrated in mainstream global efforts to scale up technology transfer to developing countries in the s [21].
Pharmaceuticals and biotech have become an increasingly important industrial sector for China in the last two to three decades, however, and increasing investment and policy support have sought to transform an industry primarily focused on generics and ‘me too’ drugs into one focused on value and innovation [22,23,24]. China’s antibiotic exports have developed rapidly, as part of an export-oriented pharmaceutical manufacturing strategy, but as with other segments of the market, antibiotic exports are primarily concentrated in APIs and generic drugs [11, 25]. There is recognition of the need for the country’s antibiotic sector to transition toward innovation-driven growth, balancing the country’s traditional role as a fast follower in antibiotics [22].
China has introduced a series of strategic national policies to elevate its position in global value chains. In , the country set the goal of “promoting the country's manufacturing industry to move up the global value chain.” This objective was reiterated in and with an emphasis on “enhancing the autonomy, security, and control of industrial and supply chains” [26]. Regarding antibiotics, China has introduced various policies to encourage and support the R&D of next-generation antibiotics, accelerate their commercialization, and streamline the approval process for new drugs [27]. These measures have, to some extent, promoted competition between domestic and international new drugs in the local market, driving innovation among domestic pharmaceutical companies [28, 29]. The most notable example is the “National Action Plan to Contain Antimicrobial Resistance (-)” [30]. In recent years, Chinese companies have gained international certifications from agencies including Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Certificate of Suitability (COS), the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA), Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA), and Therapeutic Products Directorate (TPD), enabling them to export to high-end global markets and enhancing their international competitiveness [31].
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on global supply chains [32]. Before the pandemic, concerns had already been raised about the risks of relying on China’s pharmaceutical supply chains, but these issues gained greater attention and urgency in the wake of the global health crisis. Countries, led by the US, began rethinking the global layout of their manufacturing supply chains [33, 34]. China’s antibiotic industry faces multiple pressures, including the need to strengthen domestic innovation, dependency on trade in comparatively lower-value antibiotic ingredients, and pressures likely to come from the reshaping of global antibiotic ingredient supply chains. Therefore, assessing China’s role in the global antibiotic supply chain, optimizing the pharmaceutical industry landscape, and enhancing international competitiveness have become critical. In this study, we aim to clarify China’s role in the global antibiotic industry chain by analyzing China’s evolving antibiotic trade and exploring the changing trends in the comparative advantage of Chinese-produced antibiotics.
Analyzing China's antibiotic trade trends by the import and export value, the proportion of different products in imports and exports, and the changes in export values to major countries, focusing on the top ten countries with the highest antibiotic exports in .
The trade network is a complex economic system composed of interconnected national or regional economies. Based on the trade data of the top ten countries with the highest antibiotic exports in , trade network analysis is utilized to analyze the global antibiotic industry structure, including trade value and partnerships. Treemaps are a popular tool for visualizing hierarchical data: items are represented by nested rectangles, with the area of each rectangle corresponding to the data for that item. Within the same hierarchy level, larger rectangles indicate a greater proportion of that data within the whole [37, 38]. The treemap is used here to illustrate China's antibiotic export markets and values, highlighting the destinations and scale of China's antibiotic exports.
Comparative advantage refers to a country’s ability to manufacture and export goods and products that are relatively cheaper than similar goods manufactured and exported by other countries and foreign competitors [39]. The Balassa Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) index measures a country’s comparative advantage in exporting specific commodities relative to other countries within a free trade framework and is widely used in comparative research [40]. To quantitatively assess the comparative advantage of various antibiotic products among the leading exporting countries, this study uses the comparative advantage index to analyze the antibiotic products of the top ten countries with the highest exports of antibiotic medicines and ingredients in . The formula is as follows:
$${\text{RCA}}_{\text{ij}} = \left({\text{X}}_{\text{ij}}/{\text{X}}_{\text{j}}\right) / \left({\text{X}}_{\text{iw}}/{\text{X}}_{\text{w}}\right)$$Where, RCAij, Xij, Xj, Xiw and Xw are Balassa’s index of revealed comparative advantage, exports of good i by country j, exports of all goods by country j, exports of good i by all countries in the world and exports of all goods by all countries in the world, respectively [41].
If the value of index is less than 1, the country has a revealed comparative disadvantage (loss) in the trade of good i and conversely, if the ratio is greater than 1, the country has a revealed comparative advantage in the trade of that good; the higher the value, the greater the comparative advantage [42]. The trend of RCAij shows the changes in export share of commodity i to country j [43]. Evaluating the incremental trend of the RCAij over time highlights the improvement in a country’s competitive standing for a given commodity, reflecting the creation or utilization of new opportunities [44].
The Comparative Advantage index has limitations: 1) It is asymmetric: comparative disadvantage ranges from 0 to 1, while advantage spans from 1 to infinity. 2) There is a small-country bias: when Xj is small relative to Xw, RCA tends to be higher, often making smaller countries appear more competitive than larger ones [40, 45, 46]. In the case of China’s export of antibiotics and antibiotic ingredients, the Balassa RCA index allows a robust assessment of comparative advantage.
Supplementary table.1 reveals a significant surge in China’s antibiotic exports over the past two decades. In , China’s exports of antibiotic totaled $5.46 billion, compared to $770 million in , with an average annual growth rate of 10.85%. Since , China has consistently been a net exporter of antibiotic ingredients. The trade surplus has steadily risen from $0.47 billion in to $3.86 billion in , reflecting an average annual growth rate of 11.70%. Notably, the COVID-19 pandemic contributed to a surge in the trade surplus, which increased by $0.31 billion compared to . Figure 1 further demonstrates the yearly growth of China’s total antibiotic exports since . It indicates that the most significant growth periods were - and -, with a noticeable spike after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. The trend in antibiotic ingredient exports closely aligns with this pattern. Notably, from to , China’s share of the global market for antibiotic exports exhibited an overall upward trend, with the most significant increase observed in the market share for antibiotic ingredients.
Overall, while the export value and global market share of both antibiotic ingredients and antibiotic medicines has been on an upward trend over the past two decades. Nevertheless, China’s antibiotic exports remain focused on ingredients, though as Figure 2 shows, that the proportion of antibiotic ingredients within the total antibiotic exports has been declining. This downward trend has become more pronounced since . To explore the evolution of supply structure and market demand, we also focused on imports. The import of antibiotic medicines has shown an upward trend, with import values beginning to rise rapidly in and again in . As for antibiotic ingredients, imports have steadily increased since , with a spike in . By , the import value had reached $0.69 billion (Fig. 1).
The results show that the leading exporters of antibiotic medicines were Italy, Canada, India, and Germany, while China, Italy, India, and Switzerland were the key exporters of antibiotic ingredients (in appendix). According to statistics, in , China’s antibiotic exports accounted for 18.9% of global antibiotic exports, with antibiotic ingredients making up 44.5% of global antibiotic ingredients exports, making China the largest exporter of antibiotic ingredients worldwide. Notably, China accounts for nearly half of the global export of antibiotic ingredients, but the number of trading partners it has is not significantly different from that of India and other countries, with considerable overlap among them. This indicates that China’s export market for antibiotic ingredients is highly concentrated and faces competition from India. Interestingly, a significant portion of China’s antibiotic ingredient exports goes to India (about 1/3), accounting for 82.7% of India’s import share, though India is seeking to reshore API production in the wake of COVID-19 and linked to concerns over excessive reliance on overseas suppliers for critical health commodities [47]. Moreover, among the top ten exporters of antibiotic ingredients (excluding Spain and Singapore), China is also one of the main export destinations. We discuss this in more detail below.
The analysis of the antibiotic medicines trade network reveals that, aside from the relatively lower export values of the UK, the US and France, the differences in export values among other countries are not significant. The market concentration of countries’ exports of antibiotic medicines differs: exports from China, the UK, France, and Belgium are relatively diversified, indicating a lower market concentration (Fig. 3a), while exports from the remaining countries are mainly directed toward one or a few key destinations, suggesting a higher market concentration.
Figure 4 shows the geographical distribution of destinations for China’s antibiotic exports. Taking a regional perspective, China’s antibiotic medicine (penicillins, streptomycins and their derivates) export trade is predominantly directed towards West Africa, South America, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Africa. Specifically, West Africa alone accounts for over $45.36 million in exports, representing 17.09% of the total. If the focus is on countries, however, the US is the second-largest single destination for China’s exports of antibiotic medicines (penicillin, streptomycin, and their derivatives). Russia, India, and Germany are also key export destinations. In contrast, the export trade for antibiotic medicines (other antibiotics) is mainly focused on countries in Western Europe, North America, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and South America, with exports to Western Europe and North America exceeding $ 270.34 million. Additionally, exports of antibiotic ingredients span all continents, with the majority still concentrated in South Asia ($ 1.55 billion). Western Europe is another major export destination. The US, Italy, Germany, and France, which are leading countries in medical innovation, account for a significant portion of China’s antibiotic ingredient export value. Notably, regions with limited pharmaceutical manufacturing capacity, such as Africa, also hold a share in China’s export value.
As depicted in Fig. 5, China’s apparent comparative advantage index in the field of antibiotic medicines has consistently remained below 1, an accepted benchmark for comparative advantage in this sector, whereas Italy and India, a major exporter of antibiotics, has an index exceeding 1.5. Meanwhile, Canada’s index has grown rapidly since , remaining consistently above 2. In terms of market share, since , China’s market share in antibiotic medicines has been continuously expanding, while the global market share in antibiotic medicines has remained relatively stable. These indicate that China’s export of antibiotic medicines is not a comparative advantage, though this has been improving somewhat since , with the index rising from 0.13 in to 0.43 in , though this remains substantially below the 1 that would indicate comparative advantage. In contrast, China enjoys a significant export advantage in the field of antibiotic ingredients, with a comparative advantage index which surpasses 1.5, and which continues to grow. Both China and the world have shown an expanding trend in the market share of antibiotic ingredients, but China’s growth rate is faster than that of the world. Moreover, Italy, India, and Switzerland, also major exporters of antibiotic ingredients, have a comparative advantage index generally consistently above 2, reflecting strong international competitiveness. Furthermore, the gap between China’s relative advantage in antibiotic ingredients and antibiotic medicines is gradually weakening, with the relative index dropping from 18.16 in to 6.90 in . Overall, the data suggests that at present and in the short term, China’s export advantage in antibiotic ingredients is relatively pronounced, and that the country’s comparative disadvantage in export of antibiotic medicines will take some time to be overturned.
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the primary export markets for China’s antibiotic ingredients and medicines, as well as the annual trends in their export values. Among the top ten export destinations in , the overall export value for antibiotic medicines has been rising, with a noticeable acceleration after , particularly in the US. The US has now become the main market for China’s export of antibiotic medicines (other antibiotics), whereas the main market for antibiotic medicines (penicillins, streptomycins and their derivates) has shifted from Nigeria and India to Nigeria, Japan, and the US (Fig. 6). Notably, exports of antibiotic medicines (penicillins, streptomycins and their derivates) to the US started to grow in and surged in , while exports to Japan saw rapid growth from , reaching $23.52 million in . India has consistently been the primary destination for China’s export of antibiotic ingredients (Fig. 7). India has always accounted for about a third of China's export share, and the increase in exports to India has outpaced other destinations. According to statistics, antibiotic ingredients imported from China make up 82.7% of India’s total imports of antibiotic ingredients by value.
This study, based on data from the ITC, examines the evolution and characteristics of Chinese antibiotic trade from to . It explores the current state of global and Chinese antibiotic export trade, as well as China’s role and trends in the global antibiotic supply chain. The main findings from this research are as follows.
China’s export trade of antibiotics is influenced by macroeconomic policies. On the export side, the focus has primarily been on low - value ingredients [48], though the export of antibiotic medicines is expanding. The overall export value has shown an upward trend, driven largely by antibiotic ingredients. This can be attributed to a combination of factors, including market diversification, international environmental protection, demand patterns, and cost advantages [14, 49, 50]. The export of antibiotic ingredients surged after , possibly due to the treatment of secondary infections and overuse during the COVID-19 pandemic [51,52,53]. The fact that, for both antibiotic medicines and antibiotic ingredients, the cumulative growth rate of the export volume is lower than that of the export value indicates a significant increase in the average unit price. This suggests ongoing industrial restructuring, with a gradual shift from lower-value to higher-value products. Additionally, the export value and proportion of antibiotic medicines vis-à-vis ingredients have been expanding since . This may be linked to policies like the Medium- and Long-Term Science and Technology Development Plan (-), issued in [30], aimed at enhancing the quality of medicines. The Major Projects Plan, established in , which prioritizes new drug R&D, may have also played a role [54].
On the import side, there was a significant surge in antibiotic medicines imports in and , with a steady increase in antibiotic ingredient imports starting in , culminating in a sharp spike in . This trend can be explained by various favorable policies, including improved import regulation, reduced import barriers, initiatives to promote generic drug consistency, and supply-side structural reforms in the pharmaceutical sector [55]. Notable policy changes include the revision of the Drug Registration Regulation, the Guideline for the Consistency Evaluation of Generic Drug Quality and Efficacy, the Classification Guidance for Generic Drug Quality and Efficacy Consistency Evaluation, and the National Drug Safety 12th Five-Year Plan [56]. The implementation of drug consistency evaluations has driven demand for high-quality imported ingredients and medicines. Environmental challenges leading to shortages or price spikes for ingredients, coupled with multinational companies’ increasing procurement from overseas, have likely further spurred significant growth in imports [57]. The cumulative growth rate of imports for antibiotic ingredients and medicines is lower than that of import value, indicating an increase in average unit value. This may suggest that China's industrial structure is adjusting, with import demand remaining focused on higher-value products.
Overall, China’s antibiotic industry holds a position in the upstream-to-midstream segment of the global antibiotic supply chain [51,52,53, 58]. The worldwide supply of antibiotic ingredients is, to a substantial extent, dependent on China’s exports. China is now the world’s 7th largest exporter of antibiotic medicines and the largest exporter of antibiotic ingredients. Noticeably, India’s antibiotic ingredients are relatively dispersed [59], whereas China's antibiotic ingredient exports are relatively concentrated in a small number of markets. About 1/3 of those exports go to India, making up 82.7% of India's total imports. As a major exporter of antibiotics, India today is highly dependent on importing antibiotic ingredients from China [9]. Consequently, the antibiotic manufacturing industry in many countries relies, either directly or indirectly, on China, positioning China as a critical player in the global antibiotic supply chain. This phenomenon was illustrated in , when the shutdown of a single factory in China caused a worldwide shortage of the cornerstone antibiotic piperacillin–tazobactam [20, 60].
However, this concentration of export markets heightens the reliance of Chinese exports on specific regions. If there were issues with exports to India, for example, it would be difficult to offset them through stability or counterbalancing in other export markets [50]. Presently, countries are placing more emphasis on reshoring ingredient production, which could pose challenges for China [33, 34]. Some of the most active measures are likely to come from the United States’ Biosecure Act, which will reduce US companies’ ability to do business with certain Chinese companies [61, 62]. Similarly, Indian policies to reshore API production are likely to be significant for China, given the weight of India in Chinese exports [47, 63, 64]. Equally, increasing environmental regulation of antibiotic production may also affect China [65]. It is not yet clear over what timeframe this is likely to alter the global supply structure or the potential size of the impact of measures such as these [50].
Conversely, China’s antibiotic medicine export market is not highly concentrated, with exports going to a large number of countries, indicating that it may be in a growth phase. This dispersion reduces economic risk but increases trade costs, suggesting China may lack competitive high-tech and high-value-added products [50]. Interestingly, China is also a primary export destination for other major antibiotic ingredient exporters, likely due to the domestic demand for high-quality, high-value ingredients. This points to the potential for China to optimize its product structure and focus on precision and specialization [48].
China’s antibiotic export trade network has extended to all corners of the globe, with a growing importance in developed markets like Europe and North America. The export markets for China’s antibiotic ingredients span various continents, with a strong focus on South Asia and Western Europe. The primary markets for antibiotic medicines (penicillins, streptomycins and their derivates) are developing regions such as East and West Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia. Exports to the US started to grow in and showed a sharp increase in , while exports to Japan surged in . As for antibiotic medicines (other antibiotics), their primary export destinations include Western Europe, North America, and South Asia. Exports to the US began to grow in , showed an accelerated increase in , and reached another peak in . This surge might be influenced by the overuse of antibiotics during the COVID-19 pandemic [51,52,53, 58]. It also reflects the impact of consistency evaluations for generic drugs [56] and other incentive policies aimed at boosting drug R&D [30, 66,67,68], which have improved drug quality, international recognition, and competitiveness, thereby driving exports [69]. The growing importance of the European and North American markets suggests a more rational and balanced global market distribution [23, 41].
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China’s competitive advantage in antibiotic ingredients is likely to remain strong, whereas antibiotic medicines remain insufficiently competitive and are expected to continue to show a comparative disadvantage in the short term. The comparative advantage of antibiotic ingredients has shown a fluctuating upward trend, primarily due to costs associated with labor and the environment [70]. The comparative advantage of antibiotic medicines has been rising since around , likely due to incentives for R&D and changes in drug management policies.
From the relative index of comparative advantage, around , China’s comparative advantage in antibiotics began shifting towards antibiotic medicines, but in the short term, the export advantage of antibiotic ingredients will continue to dominate. The factors behind this transition likely include technological advancements like increased labor productivity, and enhanced innovation capacity. Policy support, resource endowment, economies of scale, and ingredient costs have also played significant roles [71]. This evolution suggests that China’s antibiotic export trade structure is being optimized, transitioning towards innovation, with industrial competitiveness strengthening and moving towards the higher end of the global industrial chain [72]. From the perspective of China’s domestic industry and industrial policy, it will be important to pursue consolidation and enhanced comparative advantage, strengthen independent innovation capacity, drive technological progress, and mitigate the adverse effects of declining labor supply, rising ingredient costs, and the appreciation of the effective exchange rate [71].
A curious finding noted above is that, as well as being among the top ten exporters of antibiotic ingredients (excluding Spain and Singapore), China is also one of the main export destinations. This is a surprising finding, and possibly indicates that China is importing comparatively higher quality antibiotic ingredients from these countries, or that multinational companies in China are purchasing ingredients from outside China (Fig. 3b). More research is needed to verify this.
The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored China’s centrality in the supply of many health commodities [34], reviving discussions about reshaping global production networks. Overall, from a global perspective, COVID-19 has shown the importance of diversified and resilient supply and value chains in ensuring access to key medical technologies and commodities. As discussed above, countries like the US and India have implemented a series of incentives to boost domestic production of antibiotic ingredients [33, 73]. Reshaping the supply chain may not be achieved in the short term, but in the long run, it poses challenges for Chinese policymakers and industry [34, 50]. These include strengthening independent innovation and quality certification, boosting international competitiveness, and diversifying markets and export destinations [74, 75], supported by sound policies [34].
As we highlight above, access to antibiotics is a fundamental question for global health. The lack of adequate access is assessed to cause more deaths globally than antimicrobial resistance and furthers the emergence of resistance, predominantly in LMICs [76]. Faced with this, there is a need for greater support to initiatives and coordination to improve access to the right antibiotic at the right time. This is both a consideration for global health equity and for the sustainable management of antibiotics as a global good. It is also an important consideration in the negotiation of a pandemic treaty, given the importance of antibiotics in treating secondary bacterial infections in the case of a viral pandemic as well as in the management of possible bacterial threats [2]. China’s significance in global antibiotic value chains, its huge manufacturing capability (and linked cost advantages in the supply of many health commodities), as well as its rapid scientific and technological progress, inevitably make the country an important part of arrangements that are needed to ensure equitable global access to antibiotics in the future [1].
This study also has limitations. Although volume or unit value is not found to be a relevant measure in this study, analyzing only trade value may overlook the pricing of more specific types of antibiotics in different markets and how prices may be affecting trade [36]. Additionally, the unit value of antibiotics exported from China is relatively low compared to other major antibiotic-exporting countries in Europe and America. Consequently, China’s export share of antibiotics, calculated based on export value, may be underestimated compared to calculations based on export volume.
The United States and Switzerland were the EU's main trading partners for medicinal and pharmaceutical products in .
Among the EU countries, Germany was the largest exporter of medicinal and pharmaceutical products to countries outside the EU, in .
This article is part of an online publication providing recent statistics on international trade in goods, covering information on the EU's main partners, main products traded, specific characteristics of trade as well as background information.
Compared to , exports of medicinal and pharmaceutical products in increased by €37 billion while imports increased by €1 billion (see Figure 1). EU exports increased every year since with the exception of . With exports increasing more than imports, the trade surplus increased from €58 billion in to a record high of €194 billion in . Between and , imports grew by 74% while exports grew by 148%.
The unit value index for EU imports of medicinal and pharmaceutical products rose from 96.1 in to 110.3 in (see Figure 2). Exports saw an even stronger increase, climbing from 84.1 in to 118.8 in . This suggests that the significant growth in exports reflected in Figure 1 was, in part, driven by rising prices.
The United States stands out as the EU's main trading partner for medicinal and pharmaceutical products in (Figure 3). Exports to the United States (38%) were almost a two-fifths of all EU exports and were followed at some distance by Switzerland (16%) and the United Kingdom (6%). Imports to the EU were also dominated by the United States (38%) and Switzerland (33%) followed by the United Kingdom (7%). Since the United States and Switzerland are by far the two largest trade partners, the development of their trade in medicinal and pharmaceutical products with the EU is shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
Figure 4 shows the development of trade in medicinal and pharmaceutical products between the EU and the United States from to . Between and , imports from the United States decreased by 2.4% while exports increased by 29.6%. This caused the trade surplus to increase from €45 billion in to a record high of €74 billion in . Measured as average annual growth between and , exports increased by 14.9% per year and imports increased by 7.7% per year.
Figure 5 shows the development of trade in medicinal and pharmaceutical products between the EU and Switzerland from to . Between and , imports from the Switzerland increased by 7.2% while exports increased by 15.1%. This caused the trade surplus to increase from €4 billion in to a record high of €12 billion in . Measured as average annual growth between and , exports increased by 15.1% per year and imports increased by 7.2% per year.
The share of intra EU imports in total (intra + extra) imports of medicinal and pharmaceutical products varied greatly between EU countries in (Figure 6). For Luxembourg, Lithuania and Estonia it was above 93%, while for Slovenia and Malta it was below 40%. The average for the EU was 69%.
The share of intra EU exports in total (intra + extra) exports of medicinal and pharmaceutical products also varied greatly between EU countries in (Figure 7). For Slovakia, Luxembourg, Czechia and Estonia it was above 80%, while for Denmark, Finland and Slovenia it was below 40%. The average for the EU was 46%.
Table 1 shows that in , amongst the EU countries, Germany had the highest extra-EU exports (€68 billion) followed by Ireland (€56 billion) and Belgium (€41 billion). Four countries had shares higher than 20% for medicinal and pharmaceutical products in their total extra-EU exports. These were Slovenia (69%), Ireland (42%), Denmark and Belgium (both 25%).
Germany (€23 billion), Belgium (€21 billion), the Netherlands (€15 billion) and Italy (€14 billion) were the largest importers of medicinal and pharmaceutical products from countries outside the EU, in [1]. In , Slovenia (17%), Belgium (12%) and Malta (11%) had the highest shares for medicinal and pharmaceutical products in their total extra-EU imports.
Ireland (€49 billion) and Germany (€45 billion) had the largest extra-EU trade surpluses for medicinal and pharmaceutical products in . Only Romania, Slovakia, Malta, Estonia and Czechia had trade deficits.
This article is based on data available in the Eurostat COMEXT database for EU EU countries and in the United Nations COMTRADE database for non-EU countries.
A code (such as 'ds-') is inserted as part of the source. This code allows the reader to easily access the most recent EU data on the Eurostat website. Note that data on the website is frequently updated and may also be more detailed or have a different measurement unit. It should also be noted that European statistics on international trade in goods are compiled according to the EU concepts and definitions and may, therefore, differ from national data published by EU countries.
Product classification
Division 54 'Medicinal and pharmaceutical products' of the Standard international trade classification revision 4 (SITC Rev. 4), is made up of the sub-groups:
Unit of measure
Trade values are expressed in millions (106) or billions (109) of euros. They correspond to the statistical value, i.e. to the amount which would be invoiced in case of sale or purchase at the national border of the reporting country. It is called a FOB value (free on board) for exports and a CIF value (cost, insurance, freight) for imports.
A bias in the geographical allocation of extra-EU flows
Extra-EU imports and exports are reported by the Member State where the customs declaration is lodged, usually the place where the goods cross the EU external frontier (here referred to as the exit/entry Member State). This is not necessarily the Member State of actual import or export. The geographical allocation of an extra-EU flow is biased in the case where the entry/exit Member State is not the actual importing/exporting Member State. In such a case, the extra-EU trade will be allocated to the entry/exit Member State and the actual importing/exporting Member State will report only intra-EU flows with the exit/entry Member State. This issue particularly impacts the extra-EU imports of EU countries having important ports for transshipment of goods like Antwerp in Belgium and Rotterdam in the Netherlands. This is why it is known as the 'Rotterdam effect'.
The United Kingdom is considered as an extra-EU partner country for the EU for the whole period covered by this article. However, the United Kingdom was still part of the internal market until the end of the transitory period (31 December ), meaning that data on trade with the United Kingdom are still based on statistical concepts applicable to trade between the EU countries. Consequently, while imports from any other extra-EU trade partner are grouped by country of origin, the United Kingdom data reflect the country of consignment. In practice this means that the goods imported by the EU from the United Kingdom were physically transported from the United Kingdom but part of these goods could have been of other origin than the United Kingdom. For this reason, data on trade with the United Kingdom are not fully comparable with data on trade with other extra-EU trade partners.
Pharmaceutical products are among the most important products within the chemicals sector (SITC section 5). Today, the pharmaceutical sector is extensively regulated at EU level in the dual interest of ensuring the highest possible level of public health and patient confidence in safe, effective and high-quality medicinal products, while continuing to develop a single EU market for pharmaceuticals in order to strengthen the European pharmaceutical industry's competitiveness and research capability.
The most common trade impediments faced by pharmaceutical exporters are a range of burdensome and costly registration, licensing and certification procedures. The EU aims to redress these through its bilateral trade agreements or by tackling individual barriers as part of its market access partnership.
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